Network

The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is the foundation of data communication for the World Wide Web. It defines how messages are formatted and transmitted, and how web servers and browsers respond to various commands. HTTP operates over TCP/IP, typically using port 80 for unencrypted connections and port 443 for encrypted connections (HTTPS). It enables clients … Read more

SMTP, or Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, is a protocol used for sending email messages between servers. It operates on TCP/IP networks and is essential for the transmission of emails across the internet and within private networks. SMTP works by establishing a communication channel between the sender’s SMTP client (often an email application or server) and … Read more

Bluetooth works by enabling short-range wireless communication between devices. It uses radio waves within the 2.4 GHz frequency band to create a personal area network (PAN) where devices can communicate wirelessly without requiring a direct line of sight. Bluetooth devices establish connections automatically or through user-initiated pairing processes, allowing them to exchange data, such as … Read more

Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) works by adding a label (or tag) to data packets, allowing routers to make forwarding decisions based on these labels rather than IP addresses. This label acts as a virtual circuit identifier, enabling routers to establish predetermined paths (label-switched paths, LSPs) through the network. MPLS operates between Layer 2 (Data Link … Read more

TLS (Transport Layer Security) works over TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) by establishing a secure communication channel between a client and server. When TLS is used over TCP, it integrates with TCP’s reliable, connection-oriented communication to ensure data integrity, sequencing, and reliable delivery. The TLS handshake process initiates the secure connection, where the client and server … Read more

The normal operation of Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) ensures a loop-free topology in Ethernet networks. STP identifies and blocks redundant paths that could cause network loops, allowing only one active path between network devices. It dynamically adjusts to network topology changes by re-calculating the tree and updating the status of ports to maintain network stability … Read more

TLS, or Transport Layer Security, is a cryptographic protocol designed to provide secure communication over a computer network. It ensures data privacy, integrity, and authentication between client-server applications, such as web browsers and servers, email clients and servers, and other types of network services. TLS operates at the transport layer of the OSI model, securing … Read more

A VPN, or Virtual Private Network, is a technology that establishes a secure and encrypted connection between a user’s device (such as a computer, smartphone, or tablet) and a remote server or network. This connection is typically made over the internet, allowing users to access resources and transmit data securely as if they were directly … Read more

An LDAP role refers to a specific set of permissions or capabilities assigned to a user or a group of users within an LDAP (Lightweight Directory Access Protocol) directory service. Roles define what actions users can perform and what data they can access within the directory structure. Roles are typically defined based on organizational requirements … Read more

A virtual private network (VPN) works by creating a secure and encrypted connection, often referred to as a tunnel, between your device and a VPN server. When you connect to a VPN, your device encrypts all outgoing data before sending it through the tunnel to the VPN server. The server decrypts the data and forwards … Read more