ARP operates at Layer 2 (Data Link layer) of the OSI model, not Layer 3. It is responsible for resolving IP addresses to MAC addresses within a local network segment. When a device on a network needs to communicate with another device using its IP address, it broadcasts an ARP request message to all devices … Read more
NTP (Network Time Protocol) is a protocol used to synchronize the clocks of computers and network devices over a network. It ensures accurate timekeeping by allowing devices to coordinate their time settings with reference to a highly accurate time source known as an NTP server. Here’s how NTP works: Time Synchronization: NTP operates in a … Read more
TLS (Transport Layer Security) works over TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) by establishing a secure communication channel between a client and server. When TLS is used over TCP, it integrates with TCP’s reliable, connection-oriented communication to ensure data integrity, sequencing, and reliable delivery. The TLS handshake process initiates the secure connection, where the client and server … Read more
SMTP, or Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, is a protocol used for sending email messages between servers. It operates on TCP/IP networks and is essential for the transmission of emails across the internet and within private networks. SMTP works by establishing a communication channel between the sender’s SMTP client (often an email application or server) and … Read more
The Domain Name System (DNS) is a decentralized system that translates human-readable domain names (like example.com) into IP addresses (like 192.0.2.1) that computers use to identify each other on the network. This translation process is crucial for enabling users to access websites, send emails, and perform other internet activities using memorable domain names rather than … Read more
Bluetooth works by enabling short-range wireless communication between devices. It uses radio waves within the 2.4 GHz frequency band to create a personal area network (PAN) where devices can communicate wirelessly without requiring a direct line of sight. Bluetooth devices establish connections automatically or through user-initiated pairing processes, allowing them to exchange data, such as … Read more
The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is the foundation of data communication for the World Wide Web. It defines how messages are formatted and transmitted, and how web servers and browsers respond to various commands. HTTP operates over TCP/IP, typically using port 80 for unencrypted connections and port 443 for encrypted connections (HTTPS). It enables clients … Read more
Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) works by adding a label (or tag) to data packets, allowing routers to make forwarding decisions based on these labels rather than IP addresses. This label acts as a virtual circuit identifier, enabling routers to establish predetermined paths (label-switched paths, LSPs) through the network. MPLS operates between Layer 2 (Data Link … Read more
The normal operation of Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) ensures a loop-free topology in Ethernet networks. STP identifies and blocks redundant paths that could cause network loops, allowing only one active path between network devices. It dynamically adjusts to network topology changes by re-calculating the tree and updating the status of ports to maintain network stability … Read more
A VPN, or Virtual Private Network, is a technology that establishes a secure and encrypted connection between a user’s device (such as a computer, smartphone, or tablet) and a remote server or network. This connection is typically made over the internet, allowing users to access resources and transmit data securely as if they were directly … Read more